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Logic Pro X: Audio and Music Production - Mixing in logic pro x pdf free
Mixing in logic pro x pdf free
Mixing in logic pro x pdf free.1. Gain Staging
An eight-bar marker named Chorus is created. You will now create a marker for a new intro section and insert it before the Verse and Chorus markers. A four-measure intro will be long enough, so you can resize the Intro marker before moving it.
In the workspace, the Drummer regions move along with their respective arrangement markers. As with regions in the workspace, you can Option-drag a marker to copy it. Option-drag the Verse marker to bar 21, right after the chorus. The Verse marker and the Drummer region are copied together.
The Chorus and the Drummer region are copied together. The song is taking shape. You will now finish arranging the song structure with a bridge, a chorus, and an outro section. As you place the last three markers, continue zooming out horizontally as necessary.
A Verse marker is created after the last chorus. The song structure is now complete, and you can add Drummer regions to fill out the empty sections. New patterns were automatically created for each new Drummer region. Editing the Intro Drum Performance In this exercise, you will make the drummer play the snare instead of the toms.
The Drummer Editor shows its settings. Throughout this exercise you can click the Play button in the Drummer Editor to start and stop playback, or you can navigate the workspace by pressing the Spacebar Play or Stop and the Return key Go to Beginning.
The toms are dimmed to indicate that they are muted. In the Intro region, the toms disappear from the top lane. In the Intro region, snare hits appear next to the kick hits on the bottom lane. To play the kick in only the first half of the intro, followed by the kick and snare in the second half, you will cut the Intro region in two. The region is divided into two two-measure regions. When a region is divided, the drummer automatically adapts his performance, and plays a fill at the end of each new region.
Notice how the crash disappears from the first beat of the following region. Even though it is in another region, the crash is actually a part of the fill.
The snare plays every beat. Now the drummer plays rim clicks at the beginning of the first Intro region, and hits the snare a few times at the end. The drums play a straightforward beat with a fill at the end. Now you will open the hi-hat to add energy to the end of the intro. The drummer plays the snare on the first eight beats, and then a basic rock pattern with a very open hi-hat adds energy. At bar 5, a crash punctuates the fill at the end of the intro. The straightforward groove continues in the Verse section with the hi-hat a little less open to leave space to later add a singer.
Editing the Bridge Drum Performance In a song, the bridge serves to break the sequence of alternating verses and choruses. Often, the main idea of the song is exposed in the choruses, and verses help support or develop that statement. The bridge can present an alternate idea, a different point of view.
For this fast, high-energy indie-rock song, a quieter bridge in which the instruments play softer will offer a refreshing dynamic contrast. Playing softer does not mean the instru- ments have to play less, however. In fact, you will make the drums play a busier pattern during this bridge.
When pressing the Spacebar to play a section, you can use Cycle mode to ensure that playback always starts at the beginning of the section. The drummer plays at the same level as in the previous sections, but he plays more here. You need to bring down his energy level. When you click the toms, the hi-hat is automatically muted. Aside from the kick and snare, the drummer can focus on the toms, the hi-hat, or the cymbals ride and crash.
Kyle is now playing sixteenth notes on the toms, which create a mysterious vibe simi- lar to tribal percussions. You will make him switch from the toms to the ride cymbal in the second half of the bridge to brighten things up. While the second Bridge region is still selected, you can adjust the cycle area. The toms are muted, and the drummer now plays the ride cymbal. However, the groove still seems to be missing something. You can hear rim clicks. He plays a crescendo, thereby building up energy to lead into the next chorus.
Kyle plays slightly ahead of the beat during the bridge. You will be editing the feel of both Bridge regions simultaneously. At the top of the Drummer Editor, the ruler, Play button, and playhead are hidden because multiple regions are selected. You can now adjust the settings of all the selected regions at once. Settle on a Feel knob position more toward Pull to realize a reasonably relaxed groove.
Kyle now starts the bridge with a busy pattern on the toms, and then moves on to a bell sound on the ride. He uses restraint, hitting softly and behind the beat, with a slight crescendo toward the end.
The quiet and laid-back yet complex drum groove brings a welcome pause to an otherwise high-energy drum performance, and builds up tension leading into the last two sections. That Chorus region was created when you populated the track with Drummer regions earlier in this lesson.
The drummer now plays the crash, and this last chorus is more consistent with the previous two choruses. The drummer plays a loud beat, heavy on the crash, which could work for an outro.
You will, however, make him play double-time twice as fast to end the song in a big way. Playing double-time at that fast tempo makes the sixteenth notes on the kick drum sound ridiculously fast. The performance now sounds more realistic while retaining the driving effect of its double-time groove. The drum fill at the end of the outro is now longer.
However, raising the number of fills has the undesirable effect of adding a new fill in the middle of the outro. To remove that fill, you will cut the Outro region in two.
You now have two two-bar Outro regions. The outro has the required power to drive the last four measures; however, it seems like the drummer stops abruptly before he can finish his fill. Usually drummers end a song by playing the last note on the first beat of a new bar, but here a crash cymbal is missing on the downbeat at bar You will resize the last Outro region in the work- space to accommodate that last drum hit.
A moment after you release the mouse button, the Drummer region updates, and you can see a kick and a crash on the downbeat at bar The drummer finishes his fill, punctuating it with the last hit at bar You are now done editing the drum performance and can focus on the sound of the drums.
Customizing the Drum Kit When recording a live drummer in a studio, the engineer often positions microphones on each drum. This allows control over the sound of each drum, so he can individually equalize or compress the sound of each kit piece.
The producer may also want the drum- mer to try different kicks or snares, or to experiment with hitting the cymbals softer before he begins recording. In Logic, when using Drummer, the sounds of each drum are already recorded.
However, you can still use several tools to customize the drum kit and adjust the sound of each drum. You will study Smart Controls in more detail in Lesson 5.
In this exercise, you will use Smart Controls to quickly adjust the levels and tones of dif- ferent drums. The Smart Controls pane opens at the bottom of the main window, replacing the Drummer Editor.
It is divided into three sections: Mix, Compression, and Effects. In the Mix section, six knobs allow you to balance the levels of the drum. To the right of each knob, a button lets you mute the corresponding drum or group of drums. On the left channel strip in the inspector, the Compressor plug-in is dimmed, indicat- ing that it is turned off. As you drag up the knob, you will start hearing the subtle reverberation of a drum booth.
In the inspector, you can see the Bus 1 Send knob move along with the Tone knob. It allows you to customize the drum kit by choosing from a collection of drums and cymbals and tuning and dampening them. You can also drag Drummer regions to another software instrument track, and they are automatically converted to MIDI regions. You can hear the snare sample. The snare stays lit while the rest of the drum kit is in shadow. To the left, a Snares panel contains your choice of three snare drums, and to the right, an Edit panel includes three setting knobs.
The left panel shows only a limited selection of snares. To gain access to the entire collection of drum samples included with Logic Pro X, you need to choose a Producer Kit in the Library. To the left of the inspector, the Library opens, listing patches for the selected track. The current patch, East Bay, is selected. The Drum Kit Designer window is reset.
Clicking the disclosure triangle displays the individual tracks and their channel strips. You will use Track Stacks in Lesson 5. This time the left pane displays a choice of 15 snare drums use your mouse to scroll down the list.
The current snare, Black Brass, is selected. Continue previewing different snares and try listening to a verse or a chorus to hear your customized drum kit in action. The info pop-up window updates to show you information on the selected kick drum. Listen to the kick drum. This kick is the right choice for your song, but it has a long resonance. Typically, the faster the tempo of the song, the less resonance you want on the kick; otherwise low frequencies build up and could become a problem during the mix.
You may have seen drummers stuff an old blanket in their kick drum to dampen them. In Drum Kit Designer, you only have to raise the dampening level. You will now tune the toms, which are mainly used in the bridge section. You can hear only the low and mid toms. The Edit panel opens with four tabs: All for adjusting settings of all three toms in the kit together ; and Low, Mid, and High for adjusting settings of each individual tom. You can hear the mid tom being pitched up as Kyle continues repeating the first half of the bridge.
If you want, feel free to continue exploring Drum Kit Designer and adjusting the sound of the hi-hat, ride, and crash cymbals. You have exchanged the snare for another one that sounds a little clearer, dampened the kick drum to tame its resonance, and tuned the mid tom to pitch it a bit higher. You have now fully customized both the drum performance and the drum kit.
To select all regions on a track, make sure Cycle mode is off, and click the track header. If Cycle mode is on, only the regions within the cycle area are selected. At the bottom of the main window, the Piano Roll opens, showing the contents of the selected regions, ready to be edited. Individual drum hit are represented by note beams on a grid, making it easy to select, move, or delete any of them. You also customized the drum kit to get your desired sound.
Lesson Review 1. How do you choose a drummer? How do you choose a new drummer while keeping the current drum kit? Where do you edit Drummer regions? How do you mute or unmute drum parts? How do you make the drummer play softer or louder, simpler or more complex?
How do you access the Feel knob to make the drummer play behind or ahead of the beat? How do you open Smart Controls? How do you open Drum Kit Designer? When customizing a drum kit, how can you access all the available drum kit pieces? How do you dampen or tune an individual drum? Answers 1. Click the drummer in the character card, or from the Genre pop-up menu, choose a genre, and then click the desired drummer.
Option-click the desired drummer. In the Drummer Editor at the bottom of the main window 4. Click the drum parts in the drum kit that is displayed in the Drummer Editor.
Move the puck on the XY pad. Click the Details button at the bottom right of the Drummer Editor. Click the Smart Controls button in the control bar, or press B. Click the drum kit at the bottom of the character card. Select the appropriate Producer Kit in the Library. In Drum Kit Designer, click a drum and adjust the settings in the Edit panel. See adjusting volume, 45 tool, live automation, checking when select all, 52 recording recording, 70 starting playback at offline automation.
See drum kit, adjusting drum levels with sample rate and customizing Smart Controls, bit depth, 60 hidden functions in crash.
See crash cymbals setting up, 59—63 shortcut menu, 86 ride. See also drum loops editing Drummer nondestructive editing building up rhythm regions, — adding fade-out, — section, 22—26 editing intro drums adding fades to remove continuously repeating performance, clicks, — section, 17—21 — aligning audio material, creating simple project, 15 genres of drummers in, — positioning playhead to — arrangements.
See Channel removing fade with, aligning audio, — EQ plug-in fader. See also Volume creating and naming customizing amp fader, tempo sets, model, fades defined, EqP crossfades, adding batch, — editing note pitches in Eraser tool, adding fade-out, — Audio Track Editor, ES2 instrument plug-in, adding in Audio Track — — Editor, — Flex Pitch, — Event List adding to remove clicks, Flex Time, , — creating crescendo via note — time stretching single velocity, — defined, note, — defined, speed, — time stretching waveform overview of, — feedback between transient quantizing pitches, scales avoiding when recording markers, — and timings of MIDI multiple tracks, 79 Flex Pitch editing, — notes, — avoiding when recording folder stacks, — events.
See modulation wheel for using step input offline automation controller, recording, — reverting to straight overview of, , — MIDI Thru parameters, line, processing MIDI notes, quantization, — MIDI editors — mix automation Event List. See recording MIDI takes, live automation. See Score Editor. See tracks, project, creating new, 3—7 recording MIDI takes, recording single Project Settings, 62, — Record Enable button recording live automation properties, MIDI hardware, recording additional in Latch mode, — — takes, 75, 79, 81 overview of, — puck.
See audio regions using aux sends in joining recordings defined, mixing for, — into MIDI region, Drummer. See folders rhythm section, building up, 22 to patch parameters, keyboard shortcuts for, ribbon mics, — — ride cymbals overview of, — MIDI. See drum defined, checking balance, 70 tracks, virtual getting into same groove, monitoring effects, 67—68 virtual instruments.
See workspace, — adding fades to remove navigation overview of, clicks, — workspace Voice Separation tool, Score for Autopunch mode, appearance of stereo Editor, 86—88 audio regions in, volume animation curve, comping takes, — — — defined, , color-coded regions Volume fader deleting unused audio identifying Balance knob on, 35 files, 99 instruments in, checking balance when dividing regions by defined, 14, recording, 70 removing silence, editing note pitches in, dynamic processing — — plug-ins, editing audio by editing regions in, EQ plug-in, — reading, — external MIDI devices, editing note pitches in hiding areas in, 23 Logic Remote, workspace, — repeating sample patterns MIDI controllers, editing regions, , in.
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More info: training. The bit depth identifies the number of data bits used to encode the value of each sample. The sample rate and bit depth settings determine the quality of a digital audio recording. Logic does not exert any influence over the quality of your recordings. Also, most modern Mac computers include a built-in audio interface. Many Mac notebook computers and iMac computers even have internal microphones. Although those microphones are generally not intended to produce professional-quality recording, you can use the internal microphones to perform the exercises in this lesson in the absence of an external microphone.
By default, Logic records with a bit depth of 24 bits, which is fine for most uses. However, you may need to use different sample rates for different projects. Playing an audio file at the wrong sample rate will result in the wrong pitch and tempo, much like playing an audiotape or vinyl record at the wrong transport speed. The Project Settings window opens, and you can see your Audio settings.
By default, the sample rate is set to To determine which sample rate to choose, consider the sample rate of any prerecorded material you will use such as samples and the sample rate of the target delivery medium.
Some producers who make intensive use of Traditionally, music is recorded at Choosing an Audio Interface In most situations, Logic automatically detects an audio interface when you connect it to your Mac and asks if you want to use that interface. If you choose to use it, Logic selects that interface as both an input and output device in its audio preferences.
The Audio preferences appear. The Output Device is the device connected to your monitors or headphones. The Input Device is the device into which you plug your microphones or instruments.
If you do not have an audio interface connected to your Mac, choose from the built-in output and input devices. If you choose a new output or input device, Logic automatically reinitializes the Core Audio engine when you close the window. Recording a Single Track In this example, you will record a single instrument. The exercise describes recording an electric guitar plugged directly into an instrument input on your audio interface, but feel free to record your voice or any instrument you have.
Preparing a Track for Recording To record audio, you first have to create a new audio track, select the correct input the input number on your audio interface where the guitar is plugged in , and enable that new track for recording. When adding tracks, the new tracks are inserted below the selected track. To create a new track at the bottom of the Tracks area, you first need to select the bottom track. The New Tracks dialog appears. You can record-enable the track by selecting the Record Enable option below the Output menu; however, in some situations creating a recordenabled track may produce feedback.
You will later take precautions to avoid feedback and then record-enable the track from the track header. A new audio track set to Input 1 is created. Logic automatically assigns the new track to the next available channel.
Since six audio tracks were created when you dragged Apple Loops in Lesson 1, the new track is assigned to the Audio 7 channel and is automatically named Audio 7. More descriptive names will help you identify files in the future. The new track has a generic audio waveform icon. You can now hear your guitar and see its input level on the Guitar channel strip meter in the inspector.
This delay is called latency. You can monitor the audio routed to record-enabled tracks while Logic is stopped, playing, or recording. Otherwise, you will be monitoring the signal twice, resulting in a flangy or robotic sound.
To emulate the character a guitar amp can give to a guitar sound, you can use Amp Designer, a guitar amplifier modeling plug-in.
Note that you are still recording a dry guitar sound. The effect plug-in processes the dry audio signal in real time during the recording and playback.
Recording a dry signal means that you can continue fine-tuning the effect plug-ins or exchange them for other plug-ins after the recording is completed. Amp Designer opens. Here, you can dial in a sound or choose a preset.
You can now hear your guitar processed through Amp Designer. Adjusting the Recording Level Before recording, make sure you can monitor the sound through Logic, and then adjust the source audio level to avoid overloading the converters.
On the channel strip, look at the peak level meter, and make sure it always stays below 0 dBFS decibels full scale, the unit used to measure levels in digital audio ; a level above 0 dBFS would indicate that you are clipping the input of your converter. Keep in mind that you need to adjust the audio level before the converter input by using your microphone preamp gain knob.
Allow some headroom, especially if you know that the artist might play or sing louder during the actual recording. Working with a low-level recording is better than clipping the input. Some interfaces also support other input settings, such as phantom power, hi-pass filter, and phase.
If the Gain knob is dimmed, it means that the feature is not supported by your audio interface. Make sure the peak sits comfortably below 0 dBFS: the wider the dynamic range of the source, the more headroom it needs to avoid clipping.
When your signal peaks below —2. When it peaks between —2. When it peaks above 0 dBFS, the peak level meter turns red to indicate the audio is clipping. Tuning the Instrument Making sure an instrument is in tune before recording is always a good idea. The Tuner opens. Checking the Balance Now that the guitar is tuned, you can practice the performance and make sure that you can hear yourself and the other instruments comfortably. If the guitar is now too loud or too soft in comparison to the other tracks, in the inspector, drag the volume fader on the Guitar channel strip to adjust the monitoring level, or drag the volume slider in the Guitar track header.
Recording Audio You have set the desired sample rate, adjusted the recording and monitoring levels, inserted a plug-in to emulate the sound of a guitar amp, and tuned the instrument. You are now ready to start recording.
The playhead is positioned at bar If you need to adjust the position of the playhead, drag it left or right. The playhead and the LCD display in the control bar both turn red to indicate that Logic is recording. The playhead jumps one bar earlier and gives you a four-beat count-in with an audible metronome click before the recording starts.
You will learn how to alter both the metronome and the count-in settings later in this lesson. The new recording, Guitar 01, appears as a blue-shaded audio region. To the name of the track, Logic appends the number of the recording. The playhead jumps to the beginning of the selected region and playback starts. If you are not happy with your new recording, you can delete it and start over. In the Finder, the audio file is moved from inside the project package to the Trash. The audio file stays in the Project Audio Browser and is still present inside the project package, allowing you to later drag it back to the workspace if necessary.
This alert appears only when you try to delete a recording made since you most recently opened the project. When deleting an audio region that was previously recorded, the behavior corresponding to the Keep option is automatically applied and an alert does not appear. You will keep your recording so you can experiment with recording additional takes in the next exercise. Recording Additional Takes When recording a live performance, musicians can make mistakes. Rather than deleting the previous recording and repeatedly recording until you get a flawless performance, you can record several takes repeat performances of the same musical part and later choose the best take, or even combine the best parts of each take to create a comp composite take.
To preserve multiple takes in Logic, you can record new performances over previous ones. The new recording in red appears to be recorded over the previous blue audio region. Both the original recording Take 1 and the new recording Take 2 have been saved into a take folder. The take folder is on the Guitar track. It is currently open, so the two takes you recorded are displayed on subtracks below.
By default, the take folder plays the most recent take you recorded: Take 2, in this case. The previous take, Take 1, is dimmed and muted. The track is disarmed, and you can no longer hear the sound coming from Input 1 on your audio interface. The take folder now contains three takes. It plays back the most recent one, Take 3, while the two previous ones, Take 1 and Take 2, are muted. Recording in Cycle mode allows you to repeatedly record a single section, thereby creating a new take for each pass of the cycle.
When you stop recording, all the takes are saved inside a take folder. The Guitar track is automatically record-enabled. The playhead jumps a bar ahead of the cycle for a one-measure count-in, and starts recording the first take. When it reaches bar 9, the end of the cycle area, it jumps back to bar 5 and starts recording a new take. Logic keeps looping the cycle area, recording new takes until you stop recording. Record two or three takes. All the takes recorded in Cycle mode are packed into a take folder.
The Guitar track is automatically disabled for recording. To keep the last take of a cycle recording, make sure you stop the recording more than one bar after the beginning of the cycle area. The take folder closes. Doing so allows you to record several instruments at once, placing each instrument on a separate track, so that you can later adjust their volumes and stereo positions or process them individually.
You first create the desired number of tracks, making sure that each track is assigned to a different input number that corresponds to the input number on your audio interface where the microphone is plugged in.
In the following exercise, you will record two mono tracks at the same time, which you can do using the built-in Mac audio interface. To record more than two tracks at once, you need an audio interface with more than two inputs. The exercise describes recording an acoustic guitar on Input 1 and a vocal microphone on Input 2. When creating multiple tracks, selecting Ascending automatically sets the inputs or outputs to ascending settings. In this case, you will create two tracks, so the first will be assigned to Input 1 and the second to Input 2.
Make sure that you took precautions to avoid feedback, as explained at the beginning of this lesson; this time you will create record-enabled tracks. Two new tracks are added at the bottom of the Tracks area and automatically assigned to the next available audio channels Audio 8 and Audio 9. Their inputs are set to Input 1 and Input 2, and both are record-enabled. The multitrack recording starts, and after a one-measure count-in, you see the red playhead appear to the left of the workspace, creating two red regions, one on each record-enabled track.
You now have a new blue-shaded audio region on each track. You can use the same procedure to simultaneously record as many tracks as needed. If the tracks already exist in the Tracks area, make sure you assign them the correct inputs, record-enable them, and start recording. Punching In and Out When you want to correct a specific section of a recording—usually to fix a performance mistake—you can restart playback before the mistake, punch in to engage recording just before the section you wish to fix, and then punch out to stop recording immediately after the section while playback continues.
This technique allows you to fix smaller mistakes in a recording while still listening to the continuity of the performance. At any time, you can open the take folder and select the original recording. There are two punching methods: on the fly and automatic. Punching on the fly allows you to press a key to punch in and out while Logic plays, whereas automatic punching requires you to identify the autopunch area in the ruler before recording.
Punching on the fly is fast but usually requires an engineer to perform the punch-in and punch-out while the musician is performing. Automatic punching is ideal for the musician-producer who is working alone. Assigning Key Commands To punch on the fly, you will use the Record Toggle command, which is unassigned by default. Click the disclosure triangle next to Global Commands.
The Key Commands window lists all available Logic commands and their keyboard shortcuts, if any. When looking for a specific functionality in Logic Pro X, open the Key Commands window and try to locate the function using the search field.
A command likely exists for that functionality that may or may not be assigned. When Learn by Key Label is selected, you can press a key, or a key plus a combination of modifiers Command, Control, Shift, Option , to create a keyboard command for the selected function.
An alert indicates that the R key is already assigned to the Record command. You could click Replace to assign R to Record Toggle, but then Record would no longer be assigned to a keyboard shortcut. Control-J is now listed in the Key column next to Record Toggle, indicating that the command was successfully assigned.
Punching on the Fly You will now use the Record Toggle key command you assigned in the previous exercise to punch on the Vocals track the bottom track in your Tracks area.
When punching on the fly, you may first want to play the performance to determine which section needs to be re-recorded, and to be ready to punch in and out at the desired locations. Position your fingers on the keyboard to be ready to press your Record Toggle key command when you reach the point where you want to punch in. The playhead continues moving, but Logic is now recording a new take on top of the previous recording.
Keep your fingers in position to be ready to punch out. The recording stops while the playhead continues playing the project. On the Vocals track, a take folder was created.
It contains your original recording Take 1 and the new take Take 2. A comp is automatically created Comp A that combines the original recording up to the punch-in point, the new take between the punch-in and punch-out points, and the original recording after the punch-out point.
Fades are automatically applied at the punch-in and punch-out points. You will learn more about fades in Lesson 3. The take folder disappears, and you once again see the Vocals 01 region on the Vocals track. Punching on the fly is a great technique that allows the musician to focus on his performance while the engineer takes care of punching in and out at the right times. On the other hand, if you worked alone through this exercise and tried to punch in and punch out while playing your instrument or singing, you realize how challenging it can be.
When working alone, punching automatically is recommended. Punching Automatically To prepare for automatic punching, you enable the Autopunch mode and set the autopunch area.
Setting the punch-in and punch-out points in advance allows you to focus entirely on your performance during recording. First, you will customize the control bar to add the Autopunch button. The ruler becomes taller to accommodate for the red autopunch area.
The autopunch area defines the section to be re-recorded. You can define the autopunch area with more precision when you can clearly see where the mistakes are on the audio waveform.
Logic zooms in, and the selected region fills the workspace. Here we have a vocal recording in which the two words around bar 3 need to be re-recorded. Listen while watching the playhead move over the waveform to determine which part of the waveform corresponds to the words you need to replace.
You can drag the edges of the autopunch area to resize it, or drag the entire area to move it. Red vertical guidelines help you align the punch-in and punch-out points with the waveform. Playback starts. When the playhead reaches the punch-in point the left edge of the autopunch area , the Record button turns solid red and Logic starts recording a new take. When the playhead reaches the punch-out point the right edge of the autopunch area , the recording stops but the playback continues.
A take folder, Vocals: Comp A, is created on the track. Logic zooms out so you can see the entire take folder filling the workspace.
Just as when you punched on the fly in the previous exercise, a comp is automatically created that plays the original recording up to the punch-in point, inserts the new take between the punch-in and punch-out points, and continues with the original recording after the punch-out point. When a marquee selection is present, starting a recording automatically turns on the Autopunch mode, and the autopunch area matches the marquee selection.
Recording Without a Metronome Musicians often use a tempo reference when recording. In most modern music genres, when live drums are used, drummers record their performance while listening to a metronome or a click track. When electronic drums are used, they are often recorded or programmed first, and then quantized to a grid so that they follow a constant tempo. The other musicians later record their parts while listening to this drum track. Still, some musicians prefer to play to their own beat and record their instrumental tracks without following a metronome, click track, or drum track.
When recording audio in Logic, you can set up Smart Tempo to analyze a recording and automatically create a tempo map that follows the performance so that the notes end up on the correct bars and beats.
Subsequent recording or MIDI programming can then follow that tempo map, ensuring that all tracks play in sync. An empty project template opens, and the New Tracks dialog opens. To make Logic analyze the audio recording and create a corresponding tempo map, you should set the Project Tempo mode to Adapt. The orange color indicates that those parameters will be affected by a new recording. Get ready to record. Because the Project Tempo mode is set to Adapt, the metronome does not automatically play unlike the Project Tempo mode set to Keep mode.
You no longer need it! Try playing something that has an obvious rhythmic quality to it, such as a staccato rhythm part in which you can clearly distinguish the individual chords or notes. During the recording, Logic displays red vertical lines over the recording when it detects beats. An alert offers to open the File Tempo Editor so you can preview the recording and adjust the positions of the beat markers that Logic created while analyzing the file.
In the Global Tempo track, you can see multiple tempo changes. In that case, perform this exercise again, making sure you can hear a strong rhythmic reference in your recording. For example, try tapping a very basic beat with your fingers in front of the microphone. You have recorded a rubato performance without listening to a timing reference. Logic automatically detected your tempo changes and applied them to the project tempo.
Some settings do not affect the quality of the audio recording but can alter the behavior of your project during recording or change the audio file format used for recordings. The next few exercises will show you how those settings affect the audio recording process and explain how to modify them.
Setting the Count-In The count-in is the time you have to prepare yourself and get in the groove before the actual recording begins. The take folder is deleted. Until now, every time you pressed Record, the playhead jumped to the beginning of the previous measure so you could have a four-beat count-in. However, sometimes you may want to start recording without a count-in.
The playhead starts from its current position, and Logic starts recording right away. At other times, you may need a longer count-in, or you may want Logic to count in for a specific number of beats.
The audio region is removed from the workspace, but the audio file is still in the project folder. The playhead jumps two bars ahead to bar 3, and playback starts. When the playhead reaches bar 5, Logic starts recording. Setting the Metronome By default, the metronome is turned off during playback and automatically plays during recording. In this exercise, you will change the default behaviors using the Metronome button and later go into the Metronome settings to adjust its sounds.
The metronome is on. The metronome is off. The metronome is back on. You now have inverted the default behavior: the metronome is on during playback and is automatically turned off during recording.
The Metronome Settings window opens. There are settings for two metronomes: Audio Click also known as Klopfgeist, which is German for knocking ghost , which you are using, and MIDI Click, which is now off. Under the name of each metronome, you can adjust the pitch and velocity of the notes playing on each bar and beat.
The metronome sounds a little low compared to the drum loop on track 1. In fact, you can hear it only when no drum hit occurs on that beat. At the bottom of the Metronome Settings window, you can drag a couple of sliders to adjust the sound of the metronome. The metronome sound changes, and you can start hearing a pitch. When a project already contains a drum track, you may need the metronome only during the count-in to get into the groove before the song starts.
You hear the metronome for one measure, and then it stops playing as the song and the recording start at bar 1. It places a number of samples in an input buffer for recording and in an output buffer for monitoring. When a buffer is full, Logic processes or transmits the entire buffer. The larger the buffers, the less computing power is required from the CPU.
The advantage of using larger input and output buffers is that the CPU has more time to calculate other processes, such as instrument and effects plug-ins. The drawback to using a larger buffer is that you may have to wait a bit for the buffer to fill before you can monitor your signal. That means a longer delay between the original sound and the one you hear through Logic, a delay called roundtrip latency.
Usually, you want the shortest possible latency when recording and the most available CPU processing power when mixing so that you can use more plugins.
The Audio preferences pane opens. When choosing a different audio device, make sure you click Apply Changes to update the Resulting Latency value displayed. The latency is now shorter. If your Mac has a multicore CPU, you can see a meter for each core.
You can monitor the amount of work each core is doing. When the CPU works harder, you might hear pops and crackles while the song plays. When playing the project becomes too much work for the CPU, playback stops and you will see an error alert. Deleting Unused Audio Files The Project Audio Browser shows all the audio files and audio regions that have been imported or recorded in your project. During a recording session, the focus is on capturing the best possible performance, and you may want to avoid burdening yourself with the decision making that comes with deleting bad takes.
You may also have several unused audio files in the Project Audio Browser that make the project package or folder bigger than it needs to be. In this next exercise, you will select and delete all unused audio files from your hard drive.
The audio data in the audio file stays intact, and the regions merely point to different sections of the audio file. You will learn more about nondestructive editing in Lesson 3. If a Delete alert appears, select Keep and click OK. The regions are removed from the workspace, but their parent audio files are still present in the Project Audio Browser.
All the audio files that do not have an associated region in the workspace are selected. While the region plays, a small white playhead travels through the regions. Once you feel satisfied that the selected audio files do not contain any useful material, you can delete them. An alert asks you to confirm the deletion. The audio files are removed from the Project Audio Browser. In the Finder, the files are moved to the Trash. You are now ready to tackle many recording situations: you can record a single track or multiple tracks, add new takes in a take folder, and fix mistakes by punching on the fly or automatically.
You know where to adjust the sample rate, and you understand which settings affect the behavior of the software during a recording session.
And you can reduce the file size of your projects by deleting unused audio files—which will save disk space, and download and upload time should you wish to collaborate with other Logic users over the Internet. What two fundamental settings affect the quality of a digital audio recording? In Logic, where can you find the sample rate setting? What precaution must you take before record-enabling multiple tracks simultaneously?
In Autopunch mode, how do you set the punch-in and punch-out points? Describe an easy way to access your Metronome settings. Describe an easy way to access your count-in settings. In the Project Audio Browser, when selecting unused files, what determines whether a file is used or unused?
The sample rate and the bit depth 2. Make sure the tracks are assigned different inputs. Adjust the left and right edge of the autopunch area in the middle of the ruler. Control-click the Metronome button, and choose Metronome settings. The CPU works less hard so you can use more plug-ins, but the roundtrip latency is longer. An audio file is considered unused when no regions present in the workspace refer to that file.
Goals Assign Left-click and Command-click tools Edit audio regions nondestructively in the workspace Add fades and crossfades Create a composite take from multiple takes Import audio files Edit audio regions nondestructively in the Audio Track Editor Align audio using the Flex tool Audio engineers have always looked for new ways to edit recordings.
In the days of magnetic recording, they used razor blades to cut pieces of a recording tape and then connected those pieces with special adhesive tape. They could create a smooth transition or crossfade between two pieces of magnetic tape by cutting at an angle. Digital audio workstations revolutionized audio editing. The waveform displayed on the screen is a visual representation of the digital audio recordings stored on the hard disk. The ability to read that waveform and manipulate it using the Logic editing tools is the key to precise and flexible audio editing.
In this lesson, you will edit audio regions nondestructively in the workspace and the Audio Track Editor, and add fades and crossfades. You will open a take folder and use Quick Swipe Comping to create a single composite take. Even as your ability to read waveforms and use the Logic editing tools develops, never forget to use your ears and trust them as the final judge of your work.
Assigning Mouse Tools Until now, you have exclusively worked with the default tools. You have also used keyboard modifiers such as Control-Option to choose the Zoom tool, and changed the pointer to tools such as the Resize or Loop tools. When editing audio in the workspace, you will need to access even more tools.
In the Tracks area and in various editors , two menus are available to assign the Left-click tool and the Command-click tool. Previewing and Naming Regions During recording sessions, helping the talent produce the best possible performance often takes priority over secondary tasks such as naming regions. In this exercise, you will assign tools to the mouse pointer.
You will use the Solo tool to preview the audio regions on the new Guitar track, and apply the Text tool to rename them. You can hear a region play back in solo mode by placing the Solo tool over the region and holding down the mouse button. In the control bar, the Solo button turns on, and the LCD display and the playhead both turn yellow. The region is soloed, and you can play back starting from the location where you placed the Solo tool.
You can also drag the Solo tool to scrub the region. You can change the playback speed or direction by dragging the Solo tool to the right or to the left. You can hear that the guitar is playing single, muted notes, so you will give it a descriptive name based on those notes.
If you hold down Command when your pointer is over a region, it changes to the Text tool. A text field appears, in which you can enter a new name for the region.
You can hear some dead notes at the beginning of this take folder, and about a bar of funk rhythm guitar in bar You will edit this take folder later in this lesson. In those regions, the guitar sustains chords, so you will name the regions after the chord names. Instead of moving back and forth from the workspace to the tool menus in the Tracks area menu bar, you can press T to open the Tool menu at the current pointer position. A Tool menu appears at the pointer position.
This key command will save you a lot of trips to the title bar. You can also Command-click a tool in the pop-up Tool menu to assign it to the Command-click tool.
The Tool menu opens and closes, and the Left-click tool reverts to the Pointer tool. Both tools are back to their default assignments: the Pointer tool for the Left-click tool and the Marquee tool for the Command-click tool.
Editing Regions in the Workspace Editing audio regions in the workspace is nondestructive. Regions are merely pointers that identify parts of an audio file. When you cut and resize regions in the workspace, only those pointers are altered. No processing is applied to the original audio files, which remain untouched on your hard disk. As a result, editing in the workspace provides a lot of flexibility and room for experimentation because you can always adjust your edits at a later date.
In this next exercise, you will edit the Muted Single Notes region on the Guitar track. In the Snap menu, a checkmark appears in front of the modes you choose. The help tag shows that the region length is now 4 0 0 0. You will now repeat the simple motif in the last two bars of the Muted Single Notes region a couple more times, from bars 9 to 13, where the synthesizers play. The Command-click tool is now the Marquee tool, and the Left-click tool is the Pointer tool.
This is a very powerful tool combination when editing audio in the workspace. You can select a section of an audio region with the Marquee tool, and move or copy that selection using the Pointer tool.
The section you selected with the Marquee tool is highlighted. The playhead jumps to bar 7 and plays the selection. It corresponds exactly to the two-bar pattern of the guitar you are going to copy.
Option-dragging a marquee selection automatically divides, copies, and pastes the selection to a new location regardless of region boundaries. In this example, the two-bar guitar pattern is copied and pasted at bar 9.
Remember to release the mouse button first and the Option key second. When the mouse button is released, the original region is automatically restored. The guitar plays a melodic riff with high notes when it first comes in, and then it plays more discretely throughout the following sections, leaving room for the two synths to shine.
Still, you can bring back a little bit of the excitement just before the breakdown at bar This last region brings back a welcome variation to the monotonous pattern that the guitar has been playing for the past five bars, returning in time to lead to the break in the next section.
Now you know how to select the desired material within a region and move or copy that material anywhere on the track. Comping Takes In the previous lesson, you recorded several takes of a guitar performance and packed them into a take folder. Now you will learn how to preview those individual takes and assemble a composite take by choosing sections from multiple takes, a process called comping.
Comping techniques are useful when you have recorded several takes of the same musical phrase, each with its good and bad qualities.
In the first take, the musician may have messed up the beginning but played the ending perfectly. And in the following take, he nailed the beginning and made a mistake at the end. You can create a perfectly played comp using the beginning of the second take and the ending of the first take.
You can use the same comping techniques to create a single musical passage from multiple musical ideas. As they improvise in the studio, musicians will often record a few takes and later comp the best ideas of each performance into a new, virtual performance. Previewing the Takes Before you start comping, you need to become familiar with the takes you are going to comp.
While doing so, you will assign the takes different colors to help distinguish between them, and then decide which part of which take you will use. The selected take folder and its takes fill the workspace. The take folder is on the Guitar track, and the three takes it contains are on lanes below the Guitar track.
Take 3 at the top is selected and is the take currently playing. The other takes are dimmed to indicate that they are muted. This is useful when you need to assign other regions the same color.
Take 1 is purple. You will keep the blue color for Take 2, and choose a new color for Take 3. The selected take, Take 3, plays.
This time the first bar sounds good, but the second bar is rather messy; the third bar sounds good, and then the guitar player plays the wrong chord and stops. This time the guitarist misses the entire beginning but gives a good performance in the fourth bar of the breakdown. Although each take is a very poor performance, you have all the material you need to create a comp take that will sound good. You will swipe your mouse across the parts of the takes you want to hear in your comp.
The entire take is selected, and its color and name are displayed in the take folder. The mouse pointer does not automatically snap to the grid when Quick Swipe Comping, but snapping would help you edit this kind of rhythmic material.
This time the mouse pointer snaps, making it easier to select exactly one measure. Notice that in the take folder on the Guitar track, the waveform and its background color match the sections of the selected takes. Your comp name, Comp A, now appears next to the take folder name, and the letter A is displayed in the Take Folder pop-up menu to the right of the disclosure triangle. An easy way to start a new comp is to Option-click a take to select it, and start comping again. There is, however, a lingering noise present at the end of Take 2 you can delete.
The upper part of the clicked section is white, indicating that the section is selected. You can hear a double-attack on the downbeat of bar You will now clean up that edit. Holding Control-Shift while you drag temporarily disables the snapping, giving you the precision you need to clean up this edit.
The take folder is replaced by the current comp. The selected sections of the takes in the folder are now replaced by audio regions, and crossfades are displayed at the junctions between regions.
You now have a flawless funk rhythm guitar performance during the break. The crossfades, automatically added between edit points during the comping, ensure smooth transitions between the regions. You will learn how to apply and adjust your own fades and crossfades in the following two exercises. Adding Fades and Crossfades When editing audio, you usually want to avoid abrupt transitions on edit points: the region boundaries and the junctions between regions.
You can use nondestructive fades in the workspace to create smooth transitions. Adding a Fade-Out The very last region on the Guitar track ends abruptly, before the guitar chord has finished its natural decay.
You will now add a fade-out to make that last chord end more naturally. You can hear odd blip sounds at the edit points: the beginning of the first region, the junctions between regions, and the end of the last region. The clicks are exacerbated by the reverb in the Amp Designer plug-in on the channel strip. You can now clearly hear the clicks. The third region, a C minor chord, ends abruptly and the sustain tail of that chord does not sound natural.
You can create fades only over region boundaries. Here, the rectangular frame should cover the end of the region. A fade-out is created. The position where you started dragging determines the length of the fade-out. The fade is curved in the direction you drag.
The guitar and the piano fade out simultaneously at the end of the song, which now sounds cleaner and smoother. The Left-click tool is reassigned as the Pointer tool. Adding Fades to Remove Clicks In this exercise, you will add very short fades and crossfades to eliminate click sounds that occur at edit points on the final three regions on the Guitar track.
You can hear a click at the beginning of the region. You may need to zoom in a few more times to clearly see the shape of the waveform. To add fades using the Pointer tool, you can Control-Shift-drag over the region boundary. A fade-in is added. The click sound at the beginning of the Ab chord region disappeared. You can hear a click sound at the edit point. A crossfade is added at the junction between the two regions.
The click sound at the junction between the regions disappeared. All you need is a very short fade at the edit point to smooth the transition.
This time you will add the crossfade using the parameters in the Region inspector to avoid zooming in and out. A five-millisecond fade-out is added at the end of the selected region. In the workspace, you can see that the fade-out at the end of the selected region is replaced by a crossfade.
After editing a section, you may have many small regions with fades between them. You can choose to keep those small regions with the fades so that you can readjust the edits later. However, if you are ready to commit and would rather deal with a single audio region for the entire section, you can join the regions to render your edits into a new audio file.
An alert asks you to confirm the creation of a new audio file. A new audio region is created in place of the selected regions and their fades.
Zooming and scrolling in the workspace can help to an extent; however, when you want to edit the regions of a single track, you can use the Audio Track Editor to focus on that track without changing the zoom level of the Tracks area. Importing Audio Files Using the All Files Browser You will now import a new audio file to the project: a white noise sound effect you will use later to accentuate the transition between song sections at bar The All Files Browser opens.
At the top, three buttons allow you to access all the volumes connected to your computer, your home folder, or the current project folder. The contents of your home folder appear in the browser. The wave. A new track is created, and the wave audio region is added at bar The audio file was recorded at a low level, and its waveform is rather flat.
Depending on your zoom level, you may not even see a waveform at all. In the next exercise, you will zoom in to the waveform so you can see it clearly. The white noise effect sounds like it will work in that section. However, for maximum effect, it must be positioned so that the climax of the wave sound occurs at bar Using the Audio Track Editor You will now continue editing the wave region nondestructively, but this time in the Audio Track Editor, which allows you to clearly see the grid and the ruler above the regions without having to change the zoom level of the Tracks area.
The Audio Track Editor opens, displaying the wave track and its single region. The wave region fills the Audio Track Editor. You can clearly see the ruler just above the waveform, with vertical grid lines displayed under the waveform. You can see that the wave region is a stereo audio region because it has two interleaved circles next to its name, and two waveforms are displayed in the Audio Track Editor.
As you reach a certain zoom level, two waveforms are displayed, one for each channel. The waveform is a little taller. In the workspace, the wave audio region is moved accordingly. The climax of the wave sound is now perfectly aligned with the transition between song sections at bar The effect would sound even better if the rise before bar 17 were shorter.
Then drag to the right so the region starts at bar The region is now trimmed. All the edits you perform in the Audio Track Editor are reflected in the workspace. The wave sound now rises rapidly in the last bar of the breakdown and decays slowly in the next section, which works better for this transition.
Playing an Audio Region Backward You will now create a new region from the last chord of the Gtr chords region at the end of the Guitar track, and copy it to the beginning of the song. You will then reverse the new audio region to create a swelling sound effect during the introduction. You will now copy that region to bar 4, the last bar of the introduction.
You have a new Gtr chords. In the Tracks area, you can see the Gtr chords. The swelling guitar chord sounds about right. To get the full impact of the break at the end of the intro, the Gtr chords. To help line up the end of the reversed guitar with the first notes on the bass track, you can zoom in horizontally and position the playhead at the beginning of the Skyline Bass.
Now the swelling guitar chord sounds smooth. Aligning Audio Accurately aligning audio material to the grid, or to other instruments in the song, is crucial to realizing a professional-sounding song.
No amount of plugins, mixing, or mastering techniques can fix a sloppy arrangement, so getting a tight-sounding arrangement before moving on is important. You will now import a guitar recording that was removed from the workspace but kept in the Project Audio Browser.
That guitar was removed because of timing issues, which you can now fix using the Flex tool. The third note, at bar 2, sounds out of place, while the other notes play at the second and fourth beat of each bar, much as a snare would be heard in a drum pattern.
You will move that third dead note to the second beat of bar 2. The audio files used on the Guitar track are analyzed for transients. You may see a progress window briefly. You will learn more about flex editing in Lesson 7. Depending on its position over the waveform, the Flex tool can perform different functions, indicated by different tool icons. The dead notes in the first two bars now sound consistent. The dead notes in this guitar region are still not located perfectly on the grid.
If you wanted to take this a little further, you could set your snap mode to Beat, zoom in closer on the first guitar note, and use the Flex tool to drag it exactly on the beat. You now know how to read a waveform, identifying notes and their attacks to perform precise and clean edits.
You acquired skills with a number of editing tools—such as the Marquee tool, Fade tool, Resize tool, Flex tool, take folders, and snap modes—that you will continue to use as you edit recordings and arrange projects. Further, you can now accelerate your workflow by choosing the appropriate Left-click and Command-click tools for each job.
As you produce more music in Logic, you will continue sharpening those skills in the course of becoming an increasingly proficient audio engineer. What is nondestructive audio editing? Where can you perform nondestructive editing?
How do you comp takes? How do you prepare to edit the takes inside a take folder? How can you see the result of your comp as regions? How do you add a fade-in or fade-out to a region? How do you add a crossfade between two regions? How do you select a section of an audio region? Which tool allows you to move an individual note inside an audio region without dividing the region?
Audio region editing that does not alter the audio data in the referenced audio file 2. In the workspace or in the Audio Track Editor 3. Open the take folder, and drag over each take to highlight the desired sections. The take folder assembles a comp including all the highlighted sections.
From the Take Folder pop-up menu, choose Flatten. Drag the Fade tool over the boundaries of a region or Control-Shift-drag the Pointer tool , or adjust the Fade In parameter in the Region inspector. Drag the Fade tool over the junction of the regions or Control-Shift-drag the Pointer tool , or adjust the Fade Out parameter in the Region inspector.
Use the Marquee tool. Goals Create a new project with a Drummer track Choose a drummer and drum kit Edit the drummer performance Arrange the song structure Edit performances in the new sections Customize the drum kit Tune and dampen individual kit pieces Work with electronic drummers Customize drum machines Convert Drummer regions to MIDI regions In most popular modern music genres, drums are the backbone of the instrumentation.
They provide the foundation for the tempo and groove of the piece. For recording sessions in which the instruments are not tracked at the same time, drums are usually recorded or programmed first so that the other musicians can record while listening to their rhythmic reference. In this lesson, you will produce virtual indie-rock, hip-hop, and electro-house drum tracks. Creating a Drummer Track Drummer is a Logic Pro X feature that allows you to produce drum tracks using a virtual drummer with its own personal playing style.
Its performance is placed in Drummer regions on a Drummer track. Using the Drummer Editor, you can edit the performance data contained in a Drummer region. Each virtual drummer also comes with its own drum kit software instrument plug-ins: Drum Kit Designer or Drum Machine Designer which controls Ultrabeat in the background.
A new project opens along with the New Tracks dialog. A Drummer track is created along with an eight-bar Drummer region. At the bottom of the main window, the Drummer Editor opens, allowing you to edit the performance in the Drummer region that is selected in the workspace.
The track is named SoCal Kyle , which is the name of the default drum kit and default virtual drummer in the Rock category. The project tempo is set to bpm, which suits the selected music genre. The drummer starts with a crash cymbal and plays a straightforward rock pattern. At the end of the Drummer region, a drum fill leads into the next section, which you will add later. If necessary, continue zooming vertically by dragging the vertical zoom slider or pressing Command-Down Arrow until you can see two lanes in the Drummer region.
The Drummer region displays drum hits as triangles on lanes, roughly emulating the look of drum hits on an audio waveform. Kicks and snares are shown on the bottom lane; cymbals, toms, and hand percussions are on the top lane. Now you can read the Drummer region. In the next exercise, you will listen to multiple drummers and several performance presets. Later, you will zoom in again to see the Drummer region update as you adjust its settings in the Drummer Editor.
Choosing a Drummer and a Style Each drummer has his own playing style and drum kit, and those combine to create a unique drum sound. In the Library, drummers are categorized by music genres. By default, choosing a new drummer means loading a new virtual drum kit and updating Drummer region settings.
But sometimes you may want to keep the same drum kit while changing the drummer, which you will do in this exercise. The Library lets you access drummers and drum kit patches. The Drummer Editor shows the settings for the selected Drummer region. A yellow ruler allows you to position the playhead anywhere within the region, and you can click the Play button to the left of the ruler to preview the Drummer region. As in the Tracks area, you can also double-click the ruler to start and stop playback.
The selected region plays in Cycle mode, and the cycle area automatically matches the region position and length. The selected region is soloed— indicated by a thin yellow frame. Soloing the region helps you focus on the drums when you have other tracks in the project. You are looking for a drummer with a simple, straightforward style that more appropriately serves the song. In the Tracks area, Cycle mode is automatically turned off, the dimmed cycle area returns to its original position and length, and the selected region is no longer soloed.
When you click a preset, the region settings update and you can hear another performance from the same drummer. The current patch is locked, and changing the drummer will no longer load a new drum kit. You are now ready to customize the performance. Editing the Drum Performance In a recording session with a live drummer, the artist, the producer, or the musical director must communicate their vision of the completed song.
They may ask the drummer to play behind or ahead of the beat to change the feel of the groove, switch from the hi-hat to the ride cymbal during the chorus, or play a drum fill in a specific location. In Logic Pro X, editing a drummer performance is almost like giving instructions to a real drummer. In this exercise, you will play a drum region in Cycle mode as you adjust the drummer settings.
Next to the presets, an XY pad with a yellow puck lets you adjust both the loudness and the complexity of the drum pattern. After positioning the puck, you must wait for the region to update update time varies depending on your computer. If you drag the puck constantly, the region will not update.
As you position the puck farther to the right, the drum pattern becomes more complex, and as you move the puck toward the top of the pad, the drummer plays louder.
As the drummer plays softer, he closes the hi-hat and switches from hitting the snare drum on the skin to playing rim clicks hitting only the rim of the drum. As he plays louder, he opens the hi-hat and start playing rim shots hitting the skin and the rim simultaneously for accent.
The menu lets you choose a track to influence what the drummer plays on the kick and snare. The drummer now simply alternates kick and snare on every beat. Listen to the hi-hat. It is currently playing eighth notes.
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